Central African Republic - Context and Land Governance

^{Sangha river, Central African Republic by Gregoire Dubois(CC BY-NC 2.0)}

The agricultural sector suffers from several difficulties despite the strong production potential. Some even speak of "the decay of Central African agriculture" which began during the colonial period. Characterized by the practice of slash and burn, agriculture in this country has historically received little state support to ensure its development⁵ . Nevertheless, the agricultural sector provides 85.6% of total employment and its value added to GDP amounted to 39.6% in 2017⁶ .  

CAR also has diamond, uranium and gold deposits. As a result of political and security unrest, the country was hit with a Kimberley Process export ban on its diamonds between 2013 and 2015, which has since been only partially lifted. While minerals and metals accounted for 58.3% of exported goods in 2012, this percentage dropped to 3.7% in 2017. The formal mining sector contributes only 0.5% of GDP⁷ . A significant amount of diamonds (estimated at 30% of total stones collected), however, continue to leave the country illegally⁸ . 

The majority of the Central African population is Bantu. The indigenous Aka minority (also known as bayaka or ba'Aka) are the original inhabitants of the southwestern forest area. They are subject to severe discrimination by the Bantu. The Mbororo Fulani, the other official minority group in the country, live in the savanna areas⁹ . These nomadic herders came from neighbouring Cameroon in the 1920s with their cattle and were later joined by Fulani from Nigeria, Chad and Sudan¹⁰ .

The country is struggling to recover from two decades of intermittent conflict, despite the February 2019 signing of the Political Agreement for Peace and Reconciliation between the government and 14 armed groups¹¹ . The state is only able to effectively control 20-40 per cent of the national territory¹² , with the remainder under the control of rival armed factions. Socio-political instability, weak state institutions, and the landlocked and fragmented nature of the territory hamper agricultural production. Domestic and foreign armed groups are active in illegal logging, diamond mining and trading, and livestock theft¹³ . 

The country ranks second to last on the Human Development Index (188 out of 189). Chronic malnutrition affects 40% of Central Africans. The security crisis of 2012-2013 led to massive population movements that continue to this day. As of September 2022, more than 1.3 million Central African citizens were refugees in neighbouring countries or internally displaced¹⁴ . 

Historical context

The country was colonized by France in 1903 under the name of Oubangui-Chari. Colonization led to profound territorial recompositions, notably through the relocation and regrouping of previously scattered villages. To facilitate labor requisitioning, the French administration forced rural people to settle along the roadside, where the soil was poorer and food crop production more difficult, thus destabilizing food systems. Colonization also led to the establishment of concessionaires of rubber, cotton and cocoa plantations for export. Apart from the coffee crop adopted by peasants, agro-industrial production efforts have generally failed¹⁵ .

The country officially became independent from France on August 13, 1960. The post-colonial history of the Central African Republic is punctuated by recurrent conflicts that continue into the new millennium. In 2003, François Bozizé acceded to the presidency through a coup d'état and was subsequently elected in 2003 and 2011. In March 2013, the Séléka, a coalition of rebel groups from northeastern CAR and mercenaries from neighbouring countries, overthrew the regime of François Bozizé. This armed takeover led to a deep security and humanitarian crisis, with the Séléka employing "violence as a means of subjugation" of the population¹⁶ . Self-defense groups called anti-balaka were created to fight against the abuses perpetrated by the Séléka¹⁷ . However, the anti-balaka groups, which are mostly composed of Christians, quickly began to commit violence against Muslim civilians. 

These conflicts initially focused on the control of central power and the capture of state revenues. As the state's income ran out, opposing groups turned to the control of natural resources, thus competing for territory and further weakening the government. To finance themselves, armed groups impose taxes on the exploitation and transportation of resources. Countries bordering the Central African Republic, coveting livestock and diamonds, have also contributed to instability¹⁸ . 

^{Populations fleeing massacres, photograph by UNHCR/B. Heger (CC BY-NC 2.0)}

The marginalization of rural areas in terms of access to public services, infrastructure, and agricultural support has led some villagers, particularly the youth, to join militias. Paradoxically, these conflicts have greatly disrupted agricultural and pastoral activities. Herders have been particularly targeted by hostage-taking and extortion by highway bandits and, in response, have armed themselves to protect themselves¹⁹. President Faustin Archange Touadera was elected in 2016 and re-elected in 2020. In 2021, he declared a unilateral ceasefire that had little effect on the ground. To regain control of rebel-held territories, the government has relied on private Russian mercenaries and Rwandan soldiers. Clashes between government forces and rebel groups has resulted in several civilian casualties. The Russian mercenaries have also been accused of committing human rights abuses as they roam through rural areas²⁰. Far from solving security problems, the use of Russian forces reproduces the logic of territorial fragmentation that has characterized CAR since 2013.

Land legislation and regulations

The legal architecture regulating land tenure in CAR consists mainly of laws adopted in the 1960s, which were themselves largely inspired by colonial legislation. Law n°[a]63-441 of January 9, 1964 on the national domain remains in force to this day, so as the provisions of Law n°139-60 of May 27, 1960 on the Land and Property Code that are not contradicted by the law on the national domain. These land laws are supplemented by Law No. 08-022 of October 17, 2008 on the Forestry Code of the Central African Republic. This law recognizes the customary use rights of local populations over the forest floor and forest products. These include the right to gather dead wood for subsistence purposes, to harvest timber for housing and toolmaking, to cut down timber for dugout canoe construction and, outside protected areas, to hunt for self-consumption. The code also provides that the free and informed consent of indigenous peoples must be obtained prior to the establishment of protected areas in the territories they occupy.

 Another innovation of the code is the introduction of the concept of community forest, defined as a portion of the national forest managed by an organized village community^21.

The recognition of customary rights is reinforced by the Central African Republic's ratification in 2010 of the International Labour Organization (ILO) Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169), the first African country to do so. In 2011, the government undertook to reform its land laws through two draft laws on the State Property and Land Code (Code domanial et foncier) and the Agro-Pastoral Code (Code foncier agropastoral). After analysis, however, the government repealed them, as their "adoption would have required the revision of numerous laws, including the Forestry Code, the Environment Code, the Mining Code, etc., as well as their implementing decrees. Instead, in 2012 the government launched a "Draft framework law on the harmonization of legal instruments to better govern land tenure systems.” This framework law has not yet been adopted^22.

Land tenure classifications

Law n°63-441 of January 9, 1964 distinguishes between the public and private domains. The public domain includes areas whose use is intended for the whole population. Rivers, lakes and ponds are part of the natural public domain of the State. The artificial public domain of the State comprises roads, airports, telephone lines, power lines, etc. Land in the public domain cannot be sold or transferred to third parties²³. The private domain includes land owned by the state or private individuals. The law establishes the State as the de facto owner of vacant land, i.e., land that did not belong to anyone at the time the law was enacted. 

By placing these lands in the private domain of the state, people can only exercise use rights authorized by the state, at least from a legal point of view. Access to full ownership in the Central African Republic is severely limited, and can only be achieved through a concession. Initially granted on a provisional basis, the concession can be transferred definitively to the concessionaire after two years in urban areas and five years in rural areas if the latter has complied with its land development obligations. Thereafter, the land may be registered. If, however, it is found that a piece of land has not been developed after the statutory period, it reverts to the private domain of the State to be allocated to someone else²⁴. In practice, the Central African Republic population rarely resorts to registration, due to ignorance of the law and the belief that they legitimately own land without needing state recognition. In addition, complex bureaucratic procedures and land development requirements complicate access to the concession and then to registration. Between 1960 and 2012, only 9,000 land titles were thus granted²⁵.

Land Use Trends

Land uses in CAR are characterized by two trends: low population density relative to the size of the country and, more recently, territorial fragmentation among armed fiefdoms. The low population density is rooted in historical causes, ranging from slave raids perpetrated by neighbouring sultanates in the pre-colonial period, to forced labor under colonization, to contemporary violence, which has resulted in high mortality rates and massive population displacements²⁶. The agriculture and livestock sectors remain underdeveloped in relation to the available surface area. 

Approximately 5% of the country's arable land is cultivated, or 750,000 hectares out of 15 million. Pastures and rangelands could support up to 5 million heads of cattle, but the national herd has never exceeded 3.5 millio²⁷. and dropped to 1.5 million head in 2014²⁸.

^{Elephants gathering in a clearing, photo by David Weiner (CC BY-NC 2.0)}

Forests in CAR are generally well preserved, with deforestation rates reported to be only 0.1 to 0.2% per year from 1990 to 2015. In 20 years, the dense rainforest has decreased by 4,067 km2 , or 4% of its surface area. The expansion of slash-and-burn agriculture is the main source of deforestation in the southwestern massif. In this system, farmers cultivate the same plot of land for two to three years and then leave the land fallow for five to ten years. As fallow lands eventually regain their fertility, the problem is not so much with this type of farming system per se, but rather with its rapid growth²⁹. In peri-urban areas, particularly on the outskirts of the capital Bangui, deforestation is mainly caused by timber exploitation³⁰. In industrial forest concessions, timber harvest rates amount to less than one tree per hectare³¹. Total annual production has fluctuated over the past 20 years, reaching its highest level in 2001 (671,239 cubic meters) and its lowest in 2014 following the crisis (237,489 cubic meters).

 In 2021, the amount of timber harvested is 549,683 cubic meters³². The Forestry Code allows artisanal logging with small equipment in production forests. In principle, such logging is conditional on obtaining an annual permit, but in practice, the majority of loggers operate illegally³³. The country has 18 protected areas cumulatively covering 11% of the national territory, or 6,814,200 hectares. However, only three of these areas are effectively managed and monitored by the state thanks to international cooperation funding. The Central African Republic has completed the REDD+ readiness phase to receive payments, which should in principle lead to better conservation of its forest resources. The 2012-2013 crisis had interrupted the process, which was resumed in 2016. Ultimately, CAR aims to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by 5% before 2030 and 25% before 2050, while developing agriculture and stabilizing the prevalence of food insecurity³⁴. In the mining sector, the two foreign companies that held uranium and gold exploration licenses left the country in the wake of the 2013 crisis. The crisis also destructured the once dominant diamond industry. Gold panning, on the other hand, is growing. Gold and diamond mining is mostly carried out by small-scale diggers without permits, whose production is now bought by smugglers. In eastern CAR, the market is entirely controlled by rebels. It is estimated that there are 35,034 exploitation sites distributed in 186 mining areas.

 Most of the estimated volume of diamonds (82%) and gold (95%) produced is exported illegally³⁵. In this context, mining land areas are governed by the law of the strongest³⁶. To re-establish authority over the territory, the Central African government relies on Russian mercenaries. A recent investigation revealed that in the areas they have reconquered, these mercenaries also control diamond and gold mining. Various companies linked to Wagner, the Russian private security group, are allegedly involved in the mining, trading and export of diamonds from CAR, including from areas banned by the Kimberley Process³⁷.

Investments and land acquisitions

Land investments in the agricultural sector are few. Cotton and coffee production, which provided more than half of CAR's foreign exchange until the mid-1990s, has declined sharply and is currently at a "paltry” level. Several coffee plantations have been abandoned and no new ones have been established in the last decade³⁸. The Groupe Castel, a large French agribusiness firm, has been operating the 5,137-hectare Sucrerie africaine de Centrafrique (SUCAF RCA) since 2003. This company is the subject of controversy. 

In late 2012, the area where SUCAF RCA is located came under the control of the Séleka, who attacked employees and robbed the company. In this context, SUCAF RCA reportedly negotiated an agreement in 2014 with an ex-Séléka armed group to protect its fields, processing plant and supply roads. SUCAF RCA is also said to have attempted to preserve its monopoly and combat contraband sugar through this arrangement. In exchange, the company is said to have offered financial and logistical support to the armed rebel group, which is responsible for "committing mass atrocities.³⁹. Two oil palm plantations were also recently established in savanna areas. In 2012, Palmex began farming on 8,701 hectares, but appears to have ceased operations since then⁴⁰. Around 2013, the Central African Republic government also granted a 25,000-hectare concession to the company Palme d'Or to create a 10,000-hectare plantation⁴¹.

 According to available information, this company was continuing operations on 3,000 hectares⁴². Apart from a few modest attempts, no foreign agribusinesses have reportedly gone into business in recent years. Land acquisitions in CAR mostly take the form of forest concessions, mainly to foreign companies. Virtually all the forests in the southwestern massif, estimated at 3.8 million hectares, have been allocated to logging concessionaires or set aside as protected areas⁴³. In 2021, 14 companies with logging and management permits shared 3,695,831 hectares of forest, or about 5% of the national territory. Of these, 10 companies are actually operating⁴⁴. 

Like SUCAF, three of these companies reportedly made payments to the Séleka and then to anti-balaka groups to continue logging and exporting timber amidst political unrest⁴⁵. The state is now following a similar logic. The Central African Republic government has revoked a 187,000-hectare mining permit and awarded it in 2021 to Bois Rouge, a company linked to the private security group Wagner. This gift, which came 15 days after the Central African Army and Russian fighters recaptured the main town in the area, suggests that the government offered the concession as a reward to its ally. In addition, the government granted more flexible operating conditions and more generous tax and customs benefits than normal, without the company meeting its contractual obligations⁴⁶.

Community land rights

In legal terms, community land rights are poorly protected. Law No. 63-441 of January 9, 1964, considers customary owners as mere precarious landholders⁴⁷.  The forestry code recognizes the right of local populations to use land and resources, but not the right to sell, rent or dispose of forests. Moreover, although people may be given the right to manage community forests, there is virtually no space available for this purpose in the southwest zone⁴⁸. 

Customary land rights are often violated. Indigenous peoples in particular are frequently evicted from their land to establish logging concessions without adequate compensation from the government. Indigenous peoples often leave their forests without claiming indemnity. Another form of expropriation at the margins of the law is caused by insecurity, which forces people to abandon their fields and livestock to rebel groups who forcibly occupy the territory⁴⁹.

Women's land rights

There are significant gender disparities in the agricultural, forestry and mining sectors. In the Central African Republic, women have the right to use land, mainly for food crops, while men are responsible for cash crops⁵⁰. 

Women work the land of their ancestors, husbands or in-laws. Although land is passed down through the patrilineal line, women can sometimes own the land if they decide to stay on it with their children. Widows without children, however, face problems of inheritance. The 1998 cotton crisis led to a redistribution of labor within households and a recomposition of decision-making mechanisms. With the decline in income from cotton production, farming households retreated to food crops. Men took control of crops that were previously the preserve of women, such as groundnut production. 

This change was also accompanied by a process of centralization of decision-making in favor of the man within the household⁵¹.

^{Women watering a garden, photograph by European External Action Service (CC BY-NC 2.0)}

With respect to forests, community forest management bodies must be representative and include women according to the procedures manual. However, since the minimum number of women required to sit on these committees is not specified, very few women are members. The few women who act as treasurers or councilors have no real influence on decision-making⁵². Gender inequalities also characterize the mining sector. In CAR, the proportion of women who practice artisanal mining is low, representing only 17% of miners in the east of the country and 3% in the west (compared to 57% in Cameroon, for example). Very few women are site managers, reflecting their limited access to land. Nevertheless, the income of women operators is "significantly higher" than that of men working on the sites. With the decline in metal prices, women whose husbands are artisanal miners also enjoy greater decision-making power due to their increased contribution to household income⁵³. 

In general, the gender division of labor is more pronounced in Bantu households than in indigenous communities. The latter "are more open to women's involvement" and are characterized by greater gender diversity. Men and women collaborate in the productive and reproductive activities of the family unit. For example, indigenous women can hunt just like men. Women are also consulted and listened to by men for important decisions affecting the community⁵⁴. Outside of their communities, however, Aboriginal women and men face marginalization and exploitation at the hands of the Bantu. Indigenous people are often subjected to forced labour and even slavery⁵⁵. The chronic weakness of state institutions and the recent upsurge in insecurity amplify women's vulnerability and gender inequalities in land access. Women are frequently victims of sexual violence, a threat to which displaced women are particularly exposed. CAR is one of the most gender unequal countries, ranking 159th out of 162 countries according to the 2021 Human Development Report⁵⁶. 

With political unrest causing thousands of deaths, widowed women may find themselves without access to land because their in-laws have regained control of their husband’ property⁵⁷.

Urban land tenure

Under Law No 61-263 of December 23, 1961, on urban planning, communes are required to draw up an urban master plan to "promote the development of urban centers and the improvement of housing⁵⁸. Decree No. 66-236 of June 20, 1966, approving the urban planning regulations for provincial towns in CAR, specifies the standards applicable to construction, development and demolition in provincial towns. Decree No.72-324 of 29 September 1972 approving the urban planning regulations for the city of Bangui is a set of rules designed to be applied only in the capital. 

Together, these two regulations provide CAR with the opportunity to develop a national urban planning code. The government has also promulgated Law No 09-003 of January 16, 2009, which sets out the Orientation of the National Land Use Policy. However, these laws remain poorly enforced. Only a few development plans have actually been drawn up for large cities, and on the whole, the population continues to occupy land spontaneously⁵⁹. In Bangui, the last land subdivision operation took place in 1983, as the city no longer had any new land available for distribution and sale.

The lack of territorial planning is aggravated by strong urban population growth, itself fueled by security crises in rural areas. In 60 years, the population of Bangui has increased almost tenfold, from 87,000 in 1960 to 800,000 in 2018, representing over 17% of the national population. In total, 40% of Central Africans live in urban areas. Bangui has the highest population density in the country with more than 10,000 inhabitants/km2. Bangui's rapid population growth and land scarcity have resulted in the urbanization of agricultural areas on the outskirts of the city. 

The city's surface area has thus increased from 22.56 km2 in 1960 to 150 km2 in 2010, forcing producers to cultivate further and further away from Bangui⁶⁰. Strong pressure on land in peri-urban areas has led to the disappearance of traditional modes of land access, the individualization of land rights and the creation of a land market. Many villagers, driven by poverty, are selling their land "at rock bottom prices" to urban elites⁶¹.

Land governance innovations

Although mentioned in the Forestry Code, community forests did not have a regulatory framework for their effective implementation. To remedy this shortcoming, in 2015 the government adopted Decree No.15-463 defining the terms and conditions for the allocation and management of community forests in the Central African Republic, together with a procedures manual⁶². With the support of national and foreign civil society organizations, villages have been granted community forests.

 Legally, communities whose territory has been conceded to logging companies can only occupy small areas called "agricultural and human occupation series" within the concessions. In 2019, the Ministry of Water, Forests, Hunting and Fishing recognized the first community forest, even though it was located within the perimeter of a logging company. To get around the 5,000-hectare limit, the villages involved also applied for three contiguous community forests totaling 15,000 hectares to be managed jointly.

 Although community forests do not make access to land secure, they do allow villagers to control and use their forested space as they see fit⁶³. The allocation of the first village forests marks a success story for the respect of customary land rights in CAR.

Land tenure timeline

1903: France colonizes the territory of the current CAR. 

1960: The government adopts Law n°139-60 of 27 May 1960 on the State Property and Land Code. 

1964: The government promulgates the Law n°63-441 of January 9, 1964 Relating to the national domain which remains in force until today. 

2003: François Bozizé accedes to the presidency through a coup d'état, and is subsequently elected in 2003 and 2011. 

2008: Law No. 08-022 of October 17, 2008 on the Forestry Code of the Central African Republic is adopted. This law recognizes customary rights of use over land and forest resources. 

2009: The government adopts the Law n°09-003 setting the Orientation of the National Land Use Planning Policy. 

2013 : The Séléka seizes power by force of arms. A decade of insecurity follows, linked to control of the country's natural resources (diamonds, gold, livestock, forests). 

2015 : The government adopts Decree No.15-463 setting the Terms and Conditions for the allocation and management of community forests in the Central African Republic, along with a procedures manual. 

2019 : The government signs the Political Agreement for Peace and Reconciliation with 14 armed groups. A first community forest comes into being.

Where to go next?

The author's suggestions for further reading 

For comprehensive coverage of all land tenure issues in CAR, I recommend this report, produced as part of the REDD+ initiative. Although somewhat technical, the document provides an overview of land use and natural resource exploitation issues through the prism of their effects on forest conservation. 

To understand how the timber industry has fueled the conflict in CAR, Global Witness' Blood Timber report remains a reference. Readers can also watch this video that summarizes the highlights of the document. 

On a more positive note, this paper reports on efforts to create community forests in CAR, in particular the successful experience of the villages of Moloukou, Moalé, and Lokombé in the southwest of the country.

References

[1] https://donnees.banquemondiale.org/pays/republique-centrafricaine.

[2] USAID. 2021. Central African Republic– Property Rights and Resource Governance Profile. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/14384/property-rights-and-resource-governance-country-profile-central-african

[3] Cerutti, Paolo Omar, Sylvère Sombo, Marc Vandenhaute et Yvon Patrick Senguela. 2022. État du secteur forêt-bois en République Centrafricaine (2021). EFI et CIFOR. URL : https://landportal.org/fr/library/resources/état-du-secteur-forêt-bois-en-république-centrafricaine-2021. Langevin, Christine, Luce-Eline Darteyron, Augustin Palliere, Damas Mokpidie et Jacques Burnouf. 2020. Cadre National d’Investissement REDD+ 2020-2025 de la RCA. Version finale. Marseille: Terea. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/cadre-national-d%E2%80%99investissement-redd-2020-2025-de-la-rca.

[4] Appelée en long la « réduction des émissions provenant du déboisement et de la dégradation des forêts, associées à la gestion durable des forêts, la conservation et l'amélioration des stocks de carbone forestier », cette initiative coordonnée par l’ONU vise à compenser les pays qui contribuent au stockage de CO2.

[5] Dufumier, Marc et Benoît Lallau. 2015. « Impossible développement agricole en République centrafricaine ? » Les Cahiers d’Outre-Mer (272):463-608. URL : https://landportal.org/library/resources/impossible-d%C3%A9veloppement-agricole-en-r%C3%A9publique-centrafricaine.

[6] Indicateurs de développement de la Banque Mondiale, cités par Langevin, Christine, Luce-Eline Darteyron, Augustin Palliere, Damas Mokpidie et Jacques Burnouf. 2020. Cadre National d’Investissement REDD+ 2020-2025 de la RCA. Version finale. Marseille: Terea. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/cadre-national-d%E2%80%99investissement-redd-2020-2025-de-la-rca.

[7] Langevin, Christine, Luce-Eline Darteyron, Augustin Palliere, Damas Mokpidie et Jacques Burnouf. 2020. Cadre National d’Investissement REDD+ 2020-2025 de la RCA. Version finale. Marseille: Terea. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/cadre-national-d%E2%80%99investissement-redd-2020-2025-de-la-rca.

[8] Zufferey, Dimitri, avec la contribution de Justine Brabant. 2022. « Des diamants vendus sur Facebook mènent au groupe russe Wagner ». Radio Télévision Suisse (RTS), 2 décembre. URL : https://landportal.org/news/2023/04/diamonds-sold-facebook-lead-russian-group-wagner.

[9] Kenfack, Pierre Etienne, avec la collaboration de Marjolaine Pichon. 2018. Quels droits fonciers pour les populations des zones forestières en République centrafricaine ? London: The Rainforest Foundation UK. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/quels-droits-fonciers-pour-les-populations-des-zones-forestie%CC%80res-en-re%CC%81publique. USAID. 2021. Central African Republic– Property Rights and Resource Governance Profile. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/14384/property-rights-and-resource-governance-country-profile-central-african.

[10] Dufumier, Marc et Benoît Lallau. 2015. « Impossible développement agricole en République centrafricaine ? » Les Cahiers d’Outre-Mer (272):463-608. URL : https://landportal.org/library/resources/impossible-d%C3%A9veloppement-agricole-en-r%C3%A9publique-centrafricaine.

[11] Banque mondiale. 2022. République Centrafricaine - Vue d'ensemble. URL : https://www.banquemondiale.org/fr/country/centralafricanrepublic/overview.">www.banquemondiale.org/fr/country/centralafricanrepublic/overview.">https://www.banquemondiale.org/fr/country/centralafricanrepublic/overview.

[12] Langevin, Christine, Luce-Eline Darteyron, Augustin Palliere, Damas Mokpidie et Jacques Burnouf. 2020. Cadre National d’Investissement REDD+ 2020-2025 de la RCA. Version finale. Marseille: Terea. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/cadre-national-d%E2%80%99investissement-redd-2020-2025-de-la-rca.

[13] Betabelet, Julie Roselyne Wouloungou. 2018. Ressources, territoires et conflits: élevage bovin et exploitation minière dans l’Ouest centrafricain, Thèse de doctorat en géographie, Université Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/ressources-territoires-et-conflits-%C3%A9levage-bovin-et-exploitation-mini%C3%A8re-dans. Dubiez, Emilien, Laurent Gazull, Régis Peltier et Guillaume Lescuyer. 2019. Etat des lieux de l’exploitation artisanale de bois d’œuvre en périphérie de Bangui en République Centrafricaine. Quantification des flux et caractérisation de la filière. Montpellier: CIRAD. URL : https://landportal.org/node/113762. Langevin, Christine, Luce-Eline Darteyron, Augustin Palliere, Damas Mokpidie et Jacques Burnouf. 2020. Cadre National d’Investissement REDD+ 2020-2025 de la RCA. Version finale. Marseille: Terea. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/cadre-national-d%E2%80%99investissement-redd-2020-2025-de-la-rca. Zufferey, Dimitri, avec la contribution de Justine Brabant. 2022. « Quand les mercenaires russes de Wagner déboisent la forêt centrafricaine ». Radio Télévision Suisse (RTS), 27 juillet. URL : https://landportal.org/news/2023/04/quand-les-mercenaires-russes-de-wagner-d%C3%A9boisent-la-for%C3%AAt-centrafricaine. Zufferey, Dimitri, avec la contribution de Justine Brabant. 2022. « Des diamants vendus sur Facebook mènent au groupe russe Wagner ». Radio Télévision Suisse (RTS), 2 décembre. URL : https://landportal.org/news/2023/04/diamonds-sold-facebook-lead-russian-group-wagner.

[14] Données de l’ONU cité dans Human Rights Watch. 2023. « République centrafricaine: Événements de 2022 ». Rapport mondial 2023. URL : https://www.hrw.org/fr/world-report/2023/country-chapters/383383.">www.hrw.org/fr/world-report/2023/country-chapters/383383.">https://www.hrw.org/fr/world-report/2023/country-chapters/383383.

[15] Dufumier, Marc et Benoît Lallau. 2015. « Impossible développement agricole en République centrafricaine ? » Les Cahiers d’Outre-Mer (272):463-608. URL : https://landportal.org/library/resources/impossible-d%C3%A9veloppement-agricole-en-r%C3%A9publique-centrafricaine.

[16] Betabelet, Julie Roselyne Wouloungou. 2018. Ressources, territoires et conflits: élevage bovin et exploitation minière dans l’Ouest centrafricain, Thèse de doctorat en géographie, Université Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/ressources-territoires-et-conflits-%C3%A9levage-bovin-et-exploitation-mini%C3%A8re-dans.

[17] Kenfack, Pierre Etienne, avec la collaboration de Marjolaine Pichon. 2018. Quels droits fonciers pour les populations des zones forestières en République centrafricaine ? London: The Rainforest Foundation UK. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/quels-droits-fonciers-pour-les-populations-des-zones-forestie%CC%80res-en-re%CC%81publique.

[18] Betabelet, Julie Roselyne Wouloungou. 2018. Ressources, territoires et conflits: élevage bovin et exploitation minière dans l’Ouest centrafricain, Thèse de doctorat en géographie, Université Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/ressources-territoires-et-conflits-%C3%A9levage-bovin-et-exploitation-mini%C3%A8re-dans. Chauvin, Emmanuel, Benoît Lallau et Géraud Magrin. 2015. « Le contrôle des ressources dans une guerre civile régionalisée (Centrafrique). Une dynamique de décentralisation par les armes ». Les Cahiers d’Outre-Mer (272):467-479. URL : https://landportal.org/library/resources/le-contr%C3%B4le-des-ressources-dans-une-guerre-civile-r%C3%A9gionalis%C3%A9e-centrafrique.

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[20] Human Rights Watch. 2023. « République centrafricaine: Événements de 2022 ». Rapport mondial 2023. URL : https://www.hrw.org/fr/world-report/2023/country-chapters/383383.">www.hrw.org/fr/world-report/2023/country-chapters/383383.">https://www.hrw.org/fr/world-report/2023/country-chapters/383383.

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[23] République centrafricaine. 1964. Loi no 63-441 du 9 janvier 1964 relative au domaine national. URL : https://www.landportal.org/library/resources/lex-faoc001494/loi-n%C2%BA-63-441-du-9-janvier-1964-relative-au-domaine-national.">www.landportal.org/library/resources/lex-faoc001494/loi-n%C2%BA-63-441-du-9-janvier-1964-relative-au-domaine-national.">https://www.landportal.org/library/resources/lex-faoc001494/loi-n%C2%BA-63-441-du-9-janvier-1964-relative-au-domaine-national.

[24] Ngana, Félix. 2022. « Les procédures d’expropriation pour cause d’utilité publique en République Centrafricaine ». South Florida Journal of Development no. 3 (3):4097-4111. URL : https://landportal.org/library/resources/les-proc%C3%A9dures-d%E2%80%99expropriation-pour-cause-d%E2%80%99utilit%C3%A9-publique-en-r%C3%A9publique.

[25] Kenfack, Pierre Etienne, avec la collaboration de Marjolaine Pichon. 2018. Quels droits fonciers pour les populations des zones forestières en République centrafricaine ? London: The Rainforest Foundation UK. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/quels-droits-fonciers-pour-les-populations-des-zones-forestie%CC%80res-en-re%CC%81publique.

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[27] Ministère du développement durable 2007, cité dans Mbétid-Bessane, Emmanuel. 2014. « Modélisation et estimation de la valeur de la terre agricole dans la zone périurbaine de Bangui en Centrafrique ». Afrique Science no. 10 (3):264-272. URL : https://landportal.org/library/resources/mod%C3%A9lisation-et-estimation-de-la-valeur-de-la-terre-agricole-dans-la-zone. Banque mondiale. 2022. République Centrafricaine - Vue d'ensemble. URL : https://www.banquemondiale.org/fr/country/centralafricanrepublic/overview.">www.banquemondiale.org/fr/country/centralafricanrepublic/overview.">https://www.banquemondiale.org/fr/country/centralafricanrepublic/overview.

[28] DRC, FAO et CRS 2015, cités dans Betabelet, Julie Roselyne Wouloungou. 2018. Ressources, territoires et conflits: élevage bovin et exploitation minière dans l’Ouest centrafricain, Thèse de doctorat en géographie, Université Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/ressources-territoires-et-conflits-%C3%A9levage-bovin-et-exploitation-mini%C3%A8re-dans.

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[39] Depuis 2011, la Société d’Organisation de Management et de Développement des Industries Alimentaires et Agricoles (SOMDIAA), détenue à 87% par une filiale française du Groupe Castel, gère la SUCAF RCA. The Sentry. 2021. Culture de la violence. URL: https://thesentry.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/CultureViolence-TheSentry-Aout2021.pdf

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[57] ONUFEMMES. 2021. Profil genre de la RCA. URL : https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/migration/cf/79e97ff2839400eb393b85a5a099a47d0bfec7cc4a5caf0812df29966c13741c.pdf.">www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/migration/cf/79e97ff2839400eb393b85a5a099a47d0bfec7cc4a5caf0812df29966c13741c.pdf.">https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/migration/cf/79e97ff2839400eb393b85a5a099a47d0bfec7cc4a5caf0812df29966c13741c.pdf.

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[62] Langevin, Christine, Luce-Eline Darteyron, Augustin Palliere, Damas Mokpidie et Jacques Burnouf. 2020. Cadre National d’Investissement REDD+ 2020-2025 de la RCA. Version finale. Marseille: Terea. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/cadre-national-d%E2%80%99investissement-redd-2020-2025-de-la-rca.

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