Despite great successes in crop research for the developing world, many poor farmers in marginal areas have not benefited. There is increasing recognition that crop research can and should benefit these farmers. This paper reviews some of the key technical issues related to the challenge of formulating and carrying out crop research that is targeted, relevant and appropriate to these farmers, with a particular emphasis on crop improvement. It examines the reasons that underpin the lack of research impacts, and some of the key challenges and tools available to make this happen.

Research and policy debates over natural resource management in developing countries have largely focused on identifying the set of institutions that best supports resource sustainability and poverty alleviation. We argue that beyond finding the right institutional fit for a social-ecological system, it is equally important to understand how context affects the design and outcomes of institutional reforms. We propose a refined conceptualisation of context, based on a revision of the Institutional Analysis and Development framework.

We review claims about the potential for carbon markets that link both payments for carbon services and poverty levels to ongoing rates of tropical deforestation. We then examine these effects empirically for Costa Rica during the 20th century using an econometric approach that addresses the irreversibilities in deforestation. We find significant effects of the relative returns to forest on deforestation rates. Thus, carbon payments would induce conservation and also carbon sequestration, and if land users were poor could conserve forest while addressing rural poverty.

We summarize existing theoretical claims linking poverty to rates of deforestation and then examine this linkage empirically for Costa Rica during the 20th century using an econometric approach that addresses the irreversibilities in deforestation. Our data facilitate an empirical analysis of the implications for deforestation of where the poor live. Without controlling for this, impacts of poverty per se are confounded by richer areas being different from the areas inhabited by the poor, who we expect to find on more marginal lands, for instance less profitable lands.

This paper focuses on the application of the concept of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in Tanzania. It asks: how did IWRM affect the rural and fast-growing majority of smallholder farmers' access to water which contributes directly to poverty alleviation and employment creation in a country where poverty and joblessness are high?

Poplars and willows provide society with ecosystem services. These include direct economic benefits such as wood, fibre, fuelwood and other forest products. They also include environmental benefits improving the lives of people, such as through rehabilitation of degraded land, restoration of forest landscapes and mitigation of climate change. All of these services support rural livelihoods, enhance food security, alleviate poverty and contribute to sustainable land use and rural development, particularly in developing countries.

This case study draws on research that investigated the financial sustainability of cities in the Southern African region. The research was undertaken by the South African Cities Network (SACN). The project was jointly sponsored by the Public Private Infrastructure Advisory Facility and the World Bank. The contribution by SACN of the material for this document is gratefully acknowledged. The learning material presents an outline of the many challenges of financial sustainability and effective service delivery facing Southern African cities.

This document, written by Josette Cole of the Mandlovu Development Trust, explores the intended and unintended consequences of home ownership for poor citizens living in formal settlements in post-apartheid South Africa. It focuses on New Crossroads in Cape Town, a relatively small, urban community of 20 000 people.

This case study draws on research that investigated the perspectives and experiences of civil society organisations with regard to access to urban land by the poor. The research was conducted by Warren Smit, commissioned by Urban LandMark. An introduction to the case study is given below. On the back of this sheet some learning and reflection activities are provided. You can do these activities on your own or in groups, as appropriate for your learning session. Look carefully at these activities before you begin so you know what to look for while you are reading.

Cities attribute much of their economic expansion to the development of transit systems that link people efficiently to jobs. However, many of South Africa's cities lack modern mass transit systems for transporting commuters. Partly as a result, South Africans, especially low-income workers, spend a high share of their disposable income on transport.

Urban land markets have a profound effect on how well poor households are able to access the jobs, amenities and services offered in the city. But often the way in which this market works frustrates attempts to open up better located living and business opportunities for poorer urban households and communities, despite government policies and programmes intended to address these challenges. The challenge in South Africa is even larger because of worsening poverty and inequality, and the continuing growth of cities through urbanisation.