Chile - Context and Land Governance

^{The Aurora Wind Farm Chile photo by IMF Photo/Tamara Merino, License (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)} 

The population of Chile is 19.12 million people, and it is culturally diverse. Indigenous peoples legally recognized are Aymara, Atacameño, Quechua, Diaguita, Colla, Rapa nui, Mapuche, Kawashkar, Yagan and Chango.

In the 20th century, land governance in Chile was marked by the agrarian reform that took place from 1962 to 1973. Initially the purposes of the reform were to promote equity and improve the conditions of rural workers, as well as to serve as a remedy to a poorly performing farm sector. However, the objectives and methods of the reform would change over time.² In the first period the idea was to divide large estates into smallholdings. In the second period, from 1965 to 1973, there was a more ambitious plan to reform the agricultural sector by transferring extensive landholdings into large collective cooperatives. The idea was to remake agriculture not only through the redistribution of land but also changing its economic rationale from what was thought as a conservative and inefficient system tied to latifundia to a system in the hands of cooperatives and collectives. By the military coup by General Augusto Pinochet, in power from 1973 to 1990, the agrarian reform expropriated 59% of Chile’s agricultural farmland, equivalent to 5000 estates and over 9 million hectares ³ In the so-called ‘capitalistic contra-reform’ period, after 1973, the military government discontinued expropriations and offered farmers the option of receiving a privately owned small farm, which resulted in the division of the cooperatives among its members. Moreover, a significant part of expropriated lands was returned to their previous landowners. Additionally, and as part of the contra-reform, in the central southern part of Chile, expropriated land that had not been transferred to peasants, was sold by the military government to forest companies, who nowadays concentrate large tracts of lands planted with monocultures.⁴ During that time and until 1990, indigenous peoples land was also divided and privatised providing individual land titling.⁵ Nowadays, small farms have a significant presence in the Chilean agricultural landscape.

During 2021 and 2022 Chile´s Constitutional Convention drafted a proposal for a new National Constitution where land, especially in relation to indigenous peoples, was one of the main topics to be discussed. The presence of indigenous concerns in the constitutional debate is guaranteed by the indigenous participation in the Constitutional Convention, which was presided by Elisa Loncón, a female representative of the Mapuche people. Other topics indirectly related to land governance that gained space in the constitutional reform agenda were the protection of the environment, the management of water and potentially a new integral development model. However, the constitutional proposal was rejected on a referendum held in September of 2022. The prospects for similar reforms on land rights in the new constitutional process lead by dominant political parties carried out in 2023 are minimal.

^{Moais in Easter Island, photo by Pixxtaker, Flickr, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0}

Land legislation and regulations

The Constitution currently in force is that of 1980, enacted during the Pinochet dictatorship. Its article 19 recognizes the right of property in its various forms over all kinds of tangible or intangible property. It also states that nobody may be deprived of their property, of the asset on which it rests, or of any of the essential attributes or power of ownership, except by virtue of a general or special law authorising expropriation for reasons of public utility or national interest. Article 19 also emphasises that the state has the absolute and exclusive control over the mines and subsoil resources independently if the land where they are located belong to a natural or juridical person.

Decree Law 3516, from 1980, establishes norms on the division of rustic land,⁶ which is defined as land suitable for agricultural, livestock or forestry activity outside the urban borders or regulatory plans of the cities of Santiago, Valparaiso and Concepcion. According to the Decree, rustic land could be freely divided by their owners if they are at least 0,5 ha large, with some exceptions detailed in the Decree.⁷

Some of the land legislation relates to the agrarian reform (1962-1973). For example, Law No. 19386, from 1995, establishes norms for the disposal of common property from the agrarian reform.⁸ And Law No. 19353, from 1994, waives debts in respect of land derived from the agrarian reform process.⁹ These laws had slight modifications in 2002. Law No 19.253 on Indigenous Development, which is analysed later, although not necessarily connected to agrarian reform, protects lands previously acknowledged by the state as belonging to indigenous peoples, and creates a land fund for the acquisition of lands of which indigenous peoples have been dispossessed.¹⁰

Regarding urban land, the General Law on Urbanism and Constructions (Decree 458, 1975), last modified in 2020, distributes the competences regarding urbanism among different levels of government.¹¹ The Ministry of Housing and Urbanism is in charge of formulating the National Urban Development Policy according to the General Law on Urbanism and Construction No. 458 (from 1975 and lastly modified in 2020 by Law No. 2120) and the General Ordinance of Urbanism and Construction. At the regional level, authorities are involved in land-use policies through the Regional Plans for Urban Development and the Regional Development Strategies focused on socio-economic objectives.¹² In addition, they must approve the local land use plans developed at the municipal level. Municipalities establish urban boundaries and can approve requests to small and medium residential and commercial developments outside urban growth boundaries.

In 2022, the Ministry of Agriculture passed a regulation instructing the Agricultural and Livestock Service (Servicio Agrícola y Ganadero, SAG) to enforce Decree Law 3516 (1980), which establishes norms on the division of rustic land to impede the subdivision of agricultural lands for touristic or other reasons with negative environmental implications.¹³

Land tenure classifications

In Chile there are four main types of land tenure: state land, individual property, indigenous property, and leasehold and sharecroppers.

Leases of rural land are regulated by Decree Law 993 from 1975.¹⁴ The general purpose of this Decree is to make the regulation of rural leases more flexible to stimulate capital flow and entrepreneurial ability in the agricultural sector. Leases are not permitted by the national borders (Article 3). The Decree does not establish a maximum term for a lease. When the lease involves the right of usufruct, civil code rules provide that the terms of usufruct for companies and associations cannot be longer than 30 years.¹⁵

A sharecropping contract is defined as a contract in which one party undertakes to provide the use of a certain area of land and the other party undertakes to provide the labour for the cultivation of certain crops, with the aim of sharing the resulting fruits or products, with both parties also undertaking to provide the necessary elements for the adequate exploitation of the land, to contribute to the production costs, to jointly manage the exploitation and to participate in the risks (Article 12).

Land registration and titling can be done by those, natural or juridical persons, nationals or foreigners, that fulfil the requirements of possessing in a continuous and exclusive manner a property for a minimum of five years. The registration process can be done online.¹⁶

Community land rights issues

In Chile 12,8% of the population (2,185,792 people) self-identifies as indigenous. There are nine indigenous peoples: the Mapuche being the largest with 79,8% of the indigenous population, followed by the Aymara (7,2%).¹⁷

The rights of indigenous peoples over land are regulated by the 1993 Indigenous Development Law No. 19253.¹⁸ This law brought innovative aspects such as the recognition of the cultural value of the land, the extension of the protection to all indigenous groups in Chile -previous regulations only referred to Mapuche land-, the establishment of a mechanism both for communities or individuals to acquire land and the possibility of recognizing individual ownership over indigenous land.¹⁹ The same law considers transfer of state owned lands to communities that have traditionally owned them. Since the enactment of the law, significant plots of land, from which indigenous peoples were dispossessed in the past as recognized by the state, have been purchased for individual or communities at market prices by the National Corporation for Indigenous Development . For the Mapuche people, this has increased the indigenous land owned by them to up one million hectares. The transfer of fiscal land, which is land traditionally occupied by indigenous peoples, since 2004 have amounted to 400,000 hectares, benefiting Andean peoples from the North of Chile.²⁰

Thus, indigenous land can be communally or individually owned. The 2007 Agriculture Census recorded that indigenous peoples represent 17,6% of the farmers in Chile. Their farms are generally small (84% are less than 20 ha, and 40,9% are less than 5 ha) and represent 2,2% of the total farms, the equivalent of 1,155,770 ha.²¹

In Article 12 the law defines indigenous lands as those that indigenous people or indigenous communities currently occupy in ownership or possession from the titles enumerated in the law. One of the discussions around this definition is triggered by the two possible meanings of the word ‘currently’, which can refer to the actual present moment or to the time when the law entered into force.²² The law does not limit the recognition of indigenous land to land from a specific geographical area; and the legal definition of an indigenous person or community is not circumscribed to a specific territory either.

^{Horses in Chile, photo by Craig Bellamy, Flickr, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0}

It is also considered indigenous land the land historically owned or occupied by indigenous peoples and land received free of charge from the state. Nevertheless, a compulsory condition for traditionally owned lands to be recognised as indigenous land is to be registered in the Public Registry of Indigenous Land, managed by the National Corporation for Indigenous Development (CONADI in Spanish). The registration is free, and it does not have an expiration date.²³

Besides the Registry, the law establishes other protective provisions. According to Article 13, indigenous land cannot be alienated, seized, encumbered, or acquired by prescription, except between communities or indigenous persons of the same ethnic group. Lands whose owners are indigenous communities may not be leased, given in bailment, or ceded to third parties in use, enjoyment or administration. Indigenous land of individual ownership is allowed of those possibilities for a maximum of five years but only among indigenous of the same ethnic group. When the ownership of an indigenous plot is legally transferred to a non-indigenous person the land is not considered indigenous anymore, for example when there is a dissolution of marital arrangements between one indigenous person and one non-indigenous person.

Indigenous land is exempt from taxes and can benefit from several public programmes.

Land use trends

The urban population in Chile has been increasing in the last decades. According to data from the 2017 census, 87,8% of the population lives in urban areas, as compared to the 83,5% of urban population in 1992.²⁴

This urbanisation is reflected in a decrease in agricultural activity, as shown in the lower contribution of the agricultural sector to the economy in the last decades. In 2020, agriculture, forestry and fishing represented 4% of the GDP, half of what it represented in 1990 (8%).²⁵ This shift is acknowledged in the National Policy for Rural Development 2014-2024. The Policy states that the previously leading productive activities in rural areas focused on the use of natural resources for agriculture, mining, fishing and silviculture, is now being displaced by a diversification of productive activities based on tourism, renewal energies, aquaculture and agri-food industries.²⁶

The potential agricultural area comprises more than 31,635,041 ha. However, only 2,123,943 ha are cultivated.²⁷ Its cultivation is mainly done by small farmers. According to the VII Agricultural Census from 2007, 73,4% of the farms have less than 20 ha, 19% have between 20 and 100 ha and 7,6% are bigger than 100 ha. More than half of the farms (54%) are in the southern regions of the Araucanía, Biobio and Maule.²⁸

The most extended crops are wheat, corn, rape and rice, cultivated in 75% of the agricultural land and mainly in the The Araucanía, Maule, Ñuble y Biobío regions. Fruit cultivation increased 29% between 2008 (250,000 ha) and 2018 (321,000 ha). In particular, the cultivation of hazelnut grew 280% in ten years. Regarding livestock, the production of poultry meat experienced the fastest growth since 2008 with an average annual growth rate of 2.3%, while the beef production decreased at an average annual rate of -1,7%. Another sector that has significantly increased since 2008 is beekeeping, from 450,000 hives in 2007 to 985,000 hives in 2018.²⁹

Monoculture plantations of exotic tree species, mainly radiata pine and eucalyptus globulus, cover an area of 3,114,223 hectares in Chile. More than half of the planted area (1,812,840 hectares) is in the Bío Bío, La Araucanía, Los Ríos, and Los Lagos Regions, territories traditionally occupied by the Mapuche people in south-central Chile and until recently covered by impenetrable native temperate rainforests with great biodiversity.³⁰ With 875,178 hectares of forest monocultures, the largest plantation in the country is in the Bío Bío Region. It is followed by the Araucanía Region, with 632,289 hectares of the same exotic tree plantations.³¹

Chile has around 106 protected areas covering 21% of the Chilean continental territory (18,6 million ha).³² Protected areas are classified as National Parks, National Reserves and Natural Monuments for their preservation and are the responsibility of the National System of Protected Wildlife Areas (Sistema Nacional de Areas Silvestres Protegidas del Estado-SNASPE). Another instrument in place for the protection of nature is the Environmental Impact Assessment System (Sistema de Evaluación de Impacto Ambiental-SEIA).

Continental Chile has an extended coastline facing the Pacific Ocean that covers 8000 km. The National Commission for Land Use of the Coastline, which depends on the Ministry of Defence, oversees the implementation of the National Policy on the Use of the Coastal Land according to the Supreme Decree No. 475 from 1994. One of the tasks regarding the land-use of the coastline is the zoning with the objective of proposing preferred uses considering the geographical and natural factors, existent resources, development plans and populated centres. This is done at the regional level with the participation of public and private actors, and to be approved it should consider the implementation of a strategic environmental assessment.³³ 

^{Solar power plant in the Atacama Desert, photo by IMF/Tamara Merino, Flickr, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0}

Land investments

In Chilean legislation there are no major restrictions or differences made between national and foreigner investors, except when it comes to acquiring property on Chilean borders due to security reasons. In the past, Decree Law 600 (1974) established certain benefits to foreign investors like the impossibility of changing the tax regimes where investments were made in agriculture, mining, food and other industries, provided other specific criteria were met. When Act 20848 (2015) replaced that Decree, many of those benefits disappeared except for provisions that prohibit discrimination and some tax exemptions such as the importation of certain assets. Nevertheless, foreign investors must meet some requirements like appointing a Chilean resident for tax purposes.³⁴

Investment projects in rural land should be submitted to the Environmental Impact Assessment System (SEIA), which assesses if the project complies with current environmental legislation and points to the accountability for possible significant environmental impact.³⁵ During the Covid pandemic the number of investment projects submitted to the SEIA increased significantly: from March 1 to May 15, 195 projects were submitted in 2020, much more than in previous years (73 in 2019 and 81 in 2018). The amount of money invested also increased considerably, from 2617 million dollars in 2018 and 2130 million dollars in 2019 to 16466 million dollars in 2020.³⁶ This tendency has been seen with concern for the potential abuse that might imply from companies during a time of institutional weakness due to the pandemic.

In some cases, the demands of investment projects create inequality in the distribution of local resources. This is the case in the Atacama Desert, where mining companies are working to extract lithium. Chile has one of the world’s largest lithium reserves and for its extraction it is necessary to use water. The Chilean mining company SQM and the American Albemarle extract 63 million litres of salty water per year from the deepest layers of the desert.³⁷ This has generated water scarcity for the local communities who now do not have enough water for their crops. This conflict points to a bigger problem regarding water rights. In Chile almost 100% of water resources and water management is privatised. Water rights was a key topic in the constitutional debates in 2021 and 2022. Currently, it is uncertain if concentration of water rights in private hands will be reversed.

Small farming is financially supported by the government with the objective of making it competitive in the global economy,³⁸ and breach the development gap between urban and rural areas.³⁹ Household farms receive 60% of the resources provided by the Ministry of Agriculture.⁴⁰ The support comes from funds for projects contributing to the development of the agricultural sector through public tenders, such as those granted by CORFO (governmental agency in charge of promoting entrepreneurship and innovation). Other support provided by CORFO is to grant state guarantees to private financial institutions so agricultural projects can obtain lower borrowing rates. There are also benefits regarding taxes, such as the simplification of the tax declaration process, and the non-application of a financing tax (stamp tax) for farming, breeding, and producing goods for export.⁴¹

Land acquisitions

There are no restrictions in the acquisition of land in Chile, but there are minimum size requirements for land that can be sold to avoid jeopardising land productivity. For rural land, the minimum size is 5000 km2 (0,5 ha) as established by Article 1 of Decree Law 3516.⁴² For urban land, the minimum size requirement is established by local or municipal legislation. The sale of agricultural land does not require any compulsory tendering or prior approval procedures.⁴³

Regarding large-scale land acquisitions (LSLAs), 2020 data from Land Matrix reveals 22 deals in Chile covering 232,506 ha. All of them were acquired through outright purchase. 10 of them are devoted to livestock and the rest to food crops (4), conservation (4), tourism (2), and forest logging (2).⁴⁴

The acquisition, administration and disposal of state land is regulated by Decree Law No. 1939 from 1977, last modified in 2019.⁴⁵ Government authorities can expropriate land for national interest or public utility reasons such as the construction of infrastructure or government facilities. The Constitution recognizes the rights to claim the legality of the expropriation through regular court procedures and the right to compensation for the pecuniary damage caused, which will be agreed among the parties or established by court (Article 19, paragraph 24).

^{Chiloe, photo by Jeff Warren, Flickr, CC BY-SA 2.0}

Women’s land rights

The National Constitution recognizes people as being born free and equal in dignity and rights (Article 1), and that men and women are equal before the law (Article 19). It does not make specific reference to gender when it comes to property rights. In the context of a married couple, according to the Civil Code, the husband oversees the management of the goods including those of the women (Article 135). Work is being done to modify what is considered a discriminatory preference to the male figure in a conjugal society and align it with international standards.⁴⁶

Until the creation of the National Women's Service (NWS) in 1991, gender equality was not part of land policies. One of the NWS achievements is the creation of the Rural Women's Working Group formed by NGOs, public institutions, and international organizations to analyse and evaluate policies for rural women. Another achievement is to have female heads of household with low income, together with peasants, as a target of the National Land Titling Program in 1992. The program benefited 48.8% women and 52,2% men.⁴⁷

Most recently, the 2020 National Rural Development Policy promotes gender equality through equality in opportunities and labour conditions, and it promotes the development and strengthening of programs to satisfy the needs of the most vulnerable groups, among them women.⁴⁸ The Institute for Agricultural Development (INDAP) has several programs to provide training, counselling, and financial support to rural women such as Adelante Mujer Rural and PRODEMU. Part of the effect of these programs is seen in the number of women benefiting from them. In 1990, only 15% of women were supported by INDAP. In 2018, 44,7% of the beneficiaries of the financial and technical support provided by the Ministry of Agriculture to small producers were women.⁴⁹

The last data available on the number of farms operated by women is from 2007 and it was around 27%, compared to 62,6% farms operated by men, according to the VII National Agricultural, Livestock and Forestry Census.⁵⁰ A new Agricultural Census is being created at this moment.

Where to go next?

The author's suggestion for further reading

For an extensive overview of how the agrarian reform in Chile (1962-1973) took place and its implications we recommend the paper The Agrarian Reform Experiment in Chile. History, Impact and Implications by Alberto Valdés and William Foster.⁵¹ Having in the background the ILO Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention 169, which recognises the rights of indigenous peoples to be consulted and participate in the activities affecting them, the Mining Ministry and the World Bank published the study Empresas Mineras y Pueblos Indígenas en Chile: Buenas prácticas para la construcción de relaciones de beneficio mutuo.⁵² The study collects best practices, concrete recommendations and successful experiences for better relationships between mining companies and indigenous peoples and for a more responsible and inclusive mining activity.

The implications of forestry in the appropriation of large tracts of land in the traditional Mapuche territory in central southern Chile is analysed in Chile´s Forestry Industry, FSC Certification and Mapuche Communities, publication coordinated by Rosamel Millaman and Charles Hale.⁵³

The Observatorio Ciudadano analyzed the policies on land acquisition and transfer of land to indigenous peoples implemented after the ratification of ILO Convention 169 in 2008 in El Convenio 169 de la OIT sobre Pueblos Indígenas y Tribales a 10 años de su ratificación por el Estado de Chile: Análisis crítico de su cumplimiento.⁵⁴

Thinking ahead, the Office for Agricultural Studies and Policies published the document Agricultura Chilena. Reflexiones y Desafíos al 2030, which includes the institutional perspective as well as independent reflections on the challenges in the agricultural sector.⁵⁵

Timeline - milestones in land governance

1962 – Starting of the Agrarian Reform

Law No. 15020 entitles the government to expropriate agricultural land. Several institutions such as the Agrarian Reform Corporation (CORA) and the Agricultural Development Business (INDAP) were created at this time.

1967 – New Agrarian Reform Law and Peasant Unionisation Law (No. 16625)

Law No. 16640 facilitates massive expropriation of agricultural land. 3,5 million ha were expropriated during the Frei Montalva government.

1970 – Peasants organised as active civil actors

The government of Unidad Popular promulgated the Supreme Decree No. 481 to create Peasant Councils and enable peasants to have decisive participation in the agrarian reform.

1973 – Military coup by General Augusto Pinochet

The military government reversed the previous agrarian reform by discontinuing expropriations and promoting the division of land into smaller farms, creating an economic model of limited government interventions.

1980 – Division of rustic land

Decree No. 3516 establishes the rules for the subdivision of rural property.

1984 – Environmental protection

Law No. 18362 establishes the National System of Protected Wildlife Areas (SNASPE).

1993 – New relationship between indigenous peoples and the state

The Indigenous Development Law No. 19253 recognised indigenous peoples’ rights over land and created the National Corporation of Indigenous Development (CONADI).

2008 – International commitment with indigenous peoples’ rights

Chile ratifies the ILO Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention 169, which recognises the rights of indigenous peoples to be consulted and participate in the activities affecting their territory.

2020/2022 – National Constitution Reform Land governance, especially in connection with indigenous peoples, was one of the key topics on the agenda. The proposed new constitution, however, was rejected by referendum held in 2022.

References

[1]World Development Indicators Database. World Bank. Country Profile Chile 2020.

[2]Valdés, A. and Foster, W. (2014). The Agrarian Reform Experiment in Chile. History, Impact and Implications. IFPRI Discussion Papers. International Food Policy Research Institute.

[3]Millaman, R and Hale, Ch. (coords.). (2016). Chile´s Forestry Industry, FSC Certification and Mapuche Communities.

[4]FAO. Chile. Gender and Land Rights Database.

[5]Ministerio de Agricultura. (1980). Decreto Ley 3516. Establece normas sobre división de predios rústicos.

[6]Ministerio de Agricultura. (1995). Ley 19386. Establece normas para enajenación de bienes comunes provenientes de la reforma agraria.

[7]Ministerio de Agricultura. (1994). Ley 19353. Condona deudas que indica respecto de predios derivados del proceso de reforma agraria que señala.

[8]Ministerio de Planificación y Cooperación (1993) Ley 19253 Establece normas sobre protección, fomento y desarrollo de los indígenas.

[9]Ministerio de Vivienda y Urbanismo. (1975). Decreto 458. Aprueba nueva Ley General de Urbanismo y Construcciones.

[10]OECD. (2017). The Governance of Land Use. Country Fact Sheet Chile.

[11]Ministerio de Agricultura (2022). Orden 637 Instruye sobre la aplicación de la facultad consagrada en el artículo 46 de la ley 18.755 en relación a lo previsto en el D.L. No 3.516 de 1980.

[12]Ministerio de Agricultura. (1975). Decreto Ley 993. Disposiciones especiales sobre arrendamiento de predios rústicos, medierías o aparcerías y otras formas de explotación por terceros.

[13]Araya, M. and Norris, S. (2021). ‘Agricultural law in Chile: overview’. Practical Law Country Q&A. Thomson Reuters.

[14]More information on the process and the actual online registration on this link: https://www.chileatiende.gob.cl/fichas/4938-regularizacion-de-titulo-de-dominio-de-una-propiedad-particular

[15]Instituto Nacional de Estadística. (2017). Segunda Entrega Resultados Definitivo Censo 2017.

[16]Ministerio de Planificación y Cooperación. (1993). Ley 19253 Establece normas sobre protección, fomento y desarrollo de los indígenas, y crea la Corporación Nacional de Desarrollo Indígena.

[17]Meza-Lopehandía, M. (2019). Estatuto jurídico de las tierras mapuche en Chile. Asesoría Técnica Parlamentaria. Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional de Chile.

[18]Observatorio Ciudadano ( 2018) El Convenio 169 de la OIT sobre Pueblos Indígenas y Tribales a 10 años de su ratificación por el Estado de Chile: Análisis crítico de su cumplimiento.

[19]This data refers to individual farms and it does not include communal land. Oficina de Estudios y Políticas Agrarias. (2019). Panorama de la Agricultura Chilena. Ministerio de Agricultura.

[20]Meza-Lopehandía, M. (2019). Estatuto jurídico de las tierras mapuche en Chile. Asesoría Técnica Parlamentaria. Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional de Chile.

[21]More information about the registration process can be found on this link.

[22]Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas (INE). (2017). Resultados Censo 2017. The INE considers rural population those living in population centres with less than 2000 inhabitants. Different definitions of rural population might provide different figures such as the OECD data, according to which the rural population represents 25%. The OECD defines rural area as a territory characterised by a population density of less than 150 inhabitants per km2, with a maximum population of 50,000 inhabitants. OECD. (2020). Rural Well-being: Geography of opportunities. Chile Country Note.

[23]World Development Indicators Database. World Bank. Country Profile Chile 2020.

[24]Ministerio del Interior y Seguridad Pública. (2020). ‘Subsecretaría del Interior Aprueba Política Nacional de Desarrollo Rural’. Diario Oficial de la República de Chile. No. 42.647.

[25]Oficina de Estudios y Políticas Agrarias. (2019). Panorama de la Agricultura Chilena. Ministerio de Agricultura.

[26]Ibidem.

[27]Oficina de Estudios y Políticas Agrarias. (2019). Panorama de la Agricultura Chilena. Ministerio de Agricultura.

[28]Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe y Fondo para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas de América Latina y el Caribe (2020). Los pueblos indígenas de América Latina - Abya Yala y la Agenda 2030 para el Desarrollo Sostenible: tensiones y desafíos desde una perspectiva territorial. Santiago: Naciones Unidas.

[29]World Bank (2020). Chile Forest Note.

[30]CONAF. Ministerio de Agricultura.

[31]Subsecretaría para las Fuerzas Armadas.

[32]Araya, M. and Norris, S. (2021). ‘Agricultural law in Chile: overview’. Practical Law Country Q&A. Thomson Reuters.

[33]Servicio de Evaluación Ambiental

[34]Cuenca Berger, L. (2020). Informe sobre ingreso abusivo de proyectos al Sistema de Evaluación de Impacto Ambiental en tiempos de pandemia. Observatorio Latinoamericano de Conflictos Ambientales.

[35]Aylwin, J, Didier, M. and Mora O (2021). Human rights impact assessment of SQM against the rights of the lickanantay indigenous people. See also Boddenberg, S. (2020). ‘Chile: Explotación de litio deja sin agua a pobladores´. Deutsche Welle.

[36]Araya, M. and Norris, S. (2021). ‘Agricultural law in Chile: overview’. Practical Law Country Q&A. Thomson Reuters.

[37]Ministerio del Interior y Seguridad Pública. (2020). ‘Subsecretaría del Interior Aprueba Política Nacional de Desarrollo Rural’. Diario Oficial de la República de Chile. No. 42.647.

[38]Araya, M. and Norris, S. (2021). ‘Agricultural law in Chile: overview’. Practical Law Country Q&A. Thomson Reuters.

[39]Araya, M. and Norris, S. (2021). ‘Agricultural law in Chile: overview’. Practical Law Country Q&A. Thomson Reuters.

[40]Ministerio de Agricultura. (1980). Decreto Ley 3516. Establece normas sobre división de predios rústicos. Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional de Chile.

[41]Araya, M. and Norris, S. (2021). ‘Agricultural law in Chile: overview’. Practical Law Country Q&A. Thomson Reuters.

[42]Land Matrix.

[43]Ministerio de Tierras y Colonización. (1977). Decreto Ley 1939. Normas sobre adquisición, administración y disposición de bienes del Estado. Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional de Chile.

[44]Trufello, P. (2019). Código Civil e igualdad de derechos de mujeres y hombres. Asesoría Técnica Parlamentaria. Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional de Chile.

[45]FAO. Gender and Land Rights Database.

[46]Ministerio del Interior y Seguridad Pública. (2020). ‘Política Nacional de Desarrollo Rural’. Diario Oficial de la República de Chile. No. 42.647.

[47]Instituto de Desarrollo Agropecuario (INDAP). (2018). Cuenta pública.

[48]Rueda Restrepo, A. et al. (2008). La Mujer en la Agricultura Chilena. Resultados Censo Agropecuario 2007. Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas.

[49]Valdés, A. and Foster, W. (2014). The Agrarian Reform Experiment in Chile. History, Impact and Implications. IFPRI Discussion Papers. International Food Policy Research Institute.

[50]Ministerio de Minería. Banco Mundial. (2014). Empresas Mineras y Pueblos Indígenas en Chile: Buenas prácticas para la construcción de relaciones de beneficio mutuo.

[51]Millaman, R. and Hale, Ch. (2016). Chile´s Forestry Industry, FSC Certification and Mapuche Communities.

[52]Observatorio Ciudadano ( 2018) El Convenio 169 de la OIT sobre Pueblos Indígenas y Tribales a 10 años de su ratificación por el Estado de Chile: Análisis crítico de su cumplimiento.

[53]Oficina de Estudios y Políticas Agraria (ODEPA). (2018). Agricultura Chilena. Reflexiones y Desafíos al 2030. [a]@romy.sato@landportal.info I don't remember why I guess I added that 'reference' note because this piece of information was suggested by the reviewer.